CONTENTS

Mao launches a new Chinese 'Cultural Revolution'  – May 1966
A great patriarch (Sukarno) is overthrown ... as Indonesia is plunged into a bloodbath (1965-1966) 
Africa becomes a continent of dictators and ethnic strife rather than democratic peace and prosperity
Problems continue to unfold in Latin America
The 1967 Arab-Israeli 'June War' (or Six-Days War') 

MAO LAUNCHES A NEW CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION  – MAY 1966

Chinese Red Guard - 1966
Sovfoto
Our Times, p. 482

Youthful Chinese Red Guards -- devoted followers of Chairman Mao
Sven Samelius
Stavrianos (1979), p. 347

Mao's Little Red Book - 1966
AP
LIFE, p. 299

Thousands of the Chinese Red Guard gather to study Mao's Red Book

Studying Maoist doctrine
Greenhill
Stavrianos (1979), p. 327

Maoist indoctrination
Boston Stock (Richard Balzer)
Stavrianos (1979), p. 349

"The Chinese People's Liberation Army is a University of Mao Zedong Thought"
Wikipedia:  "Cultural Revolution"

"We'll destroy old world and build new"
A young worker crushes the crucifix, Buddha and classical Chinese texts with his hammer - 1966
Wikipedia:  "Cultural Revolution"

Mao's radically ideological wife: Jiang Qing ... "Let new socialistic culture conquer every stage" - 1967
Wikipedia:  Cultural Revolution

Two Chinese citizens branded as "Capitalist Roaders" and hence subjected to physical abuse in the public -
part of the Maoist strategy of "Struggle Sessions" to get Chinese who were less than revolutionary to struggle with
their "errors" (hundreds of thousands were required to do this in 'reeducation (prison) camps)

Chinese youth conducting a “Struggle Session,” forced on an adult (probably teacher or local official)
in some of the worst cases they would even be beaten to death by the overwrought youth

Young Maoists attacking an older Chinaman who did not meet their measure of proper Maoist demeanor - 1967
Li Zhensheng/M Photo
Time - 75 Years, p. 98

Chinese "Capitalist-Roaders" punished by Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution
Economist, May 20, 2006, p. 43

Red Guards denounce a group of Franciscan nuns in front of their desecrated church in late August 1966.
The nuns were expelled from China with great fanfare a few days later. These nuns had remained in China after the Communist victory in 1949.
They ran an English school, which many children from Western embassies attended. During the Cultural Revolution their presence in China
became evidence to the Red Guards that the revolution was not thorough enough.

But the real goal of the Cultural Revolution was to swing such strong public support behind Mao that he could get rid of
all his political adversaries within the Communist Party (anyone with a personal base of support of his own within the party)
and thus rule China as he personally chose to do so.

The Chinese Communist leader receiving the greatest focus of Mao's wrath was
the party's next in command, Liu Shaoqi - also President of the People's Republic of China.

Liu Shaoqi - Chairman (President) of the People's Republic of China (1959-1968)
A GREAT PATRIARCH (SUKARNO) IS OVERTHROWN - 
AS INDONESIA IS PLUNGED INTO AN IDEOLOGICAL BLOODBATH (1965-1966)

Sukarno of Indonesia, who had ruled Indonesia since independence from the Dutch in the second half of the 1940s,
declared himself “President for Life” in 1963 ... but was eased out of power by Gen. Suharto in the period 1965-1967.
John Dominis / LIFE
Our Times, p. 486

As two men await certain death, a soldier bayonets those at his feet (October 1965)

The immense growth of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) alarmed both the Indonesian military and the Indonesian Muslims.  When a military coup was attempted – and failed – against Sukarno in October of 1965, the PKI was blamed (though it probably was not the cause).  National outrage at that point spilled out on the streets, targeting the Indonesian Communists.  The military under Suharto took increasing control of the country as it fell into a state of murderous bedlam (estimates vary widely on the number of people killed during this crisis, though most researchers today put the number at between 500 thousand and one million). 

General Suharto – who step by step took control of Indonesia in the period 1965-1967

General Suharto effectively established a military dictatorship over the country during the 1965-1966 crisis. The Indonesian Communist Party was destroyed, never to revive.  This left the Muslim religion and its organization as the only channel for the expression of political discontent in the country ... as various economic and social problems arose to confront the country’s secular military government. Thus it was that Islam came to be greatly strengthened – and radicalized – in Indonesia.

Suharto would officially become President in 1968 and continue to rule Indonesia for the next 20 years. 

ALSO, AFRICA DURING THE 1960s BECOMES A CONTINENT OF DICTATORS AND ETHNIC STRIFE RATHER THAN DEMOCRATIC PEACE AND PROSPERITY

Ethiopia under the continuing rule of the Christian Emperor Haile Selassie -
not exactly a democracy ... but not exactly a tyranny either

Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie with his wife and grandchildren - 1954
Popperfoto
 Meredith, p. 370a

Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie
who ruled the only African country to maintain its independence in the face of European imperialism (except during the period of Mussolini's Italian rule
over the country from the mid 1930s to the early 1940s), sees himself not only as a major leader of Africa, but also a major voice in world affairs.
Popperfoto
 Meredith, p. 370a

As Africa (south of the Sahara) heads into the 1960s, there is definitely a trend toward independence under Black African rule

Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) President Félix Houphouët-Boigny and Tanganyika President Julius Nyerere
in Dar es Salaam - 1962
Getty Images
 Meredith, p. 178d

Senegal's President Léopold Senghor and his wife celebrating Senegal's first year of independence from France.
Getty Images
 Meredith, p. 178e

Kenya's President Jomo Kenyatta and Mau Mau leader 'Field Marshal' Mwariama
(the latter was offered amnesty under Kenyatta's 1963 ruling)
Corbis
 Meredith, p. 178f

East Africa's presidential trio:  Tanzania's Julius Nyerere, Uganda's Milton Obote and Kenya's Jomo Kenyatta - 1964
Corbis
 Meredith, p. 178f

But the move to independence is not always peaceful ... as different people have different ideas
about where these newly independent states should be headed politically and economically

Argentinian revolutionary Che Guevara leading a Cuban expedition in the eastern Congo - 1965
Getty Images
 Meredith, p. 178g

Also Africa begins to show impatience with the 'Fathers of the Nation" when independence does not automatically
usher in the Utopia Africans were expecting.   In a not nsurprising fashion, the men with guns in many cases
decide to remove civilian governments and replace them with more 'efficient' systems operating on the hierarchical
lines of the military.  The new 'democracies' begin to fall everywhere.

Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana ousted in a coup in 1966 during a visit to China
Ian Berry - Magnum
Our Times, p. 486

A statue of Kwame Nkrumah outside Ghana's parliament building, pulled down and smashed during the army coup of 1966
(But with time and distance from his actual rule his reputation as an almost divine father-figure would be restored in Ghana)
Getty Images
 Meredith, p. 370b

But other "Fathers of the Nation" hold on to power, eliminating any threats to their regimes, and rewarding
enormously those who bring unquestioning support to their rule - at the cost of the prosperity of the rest of the country

Malawi President Hastings Banda at a Commonwealth conference in London - 1964
For thirty years he would rule Malawi absolutely as his personal fiefdom.
Corbis
 Meredith, p. 178e


A Key Point 

A major problem facing the African (and most other Third World) nations was that they were indeed not nations at all.  In the late 1800s these countries were lumped together as European colonies to meet only European imperial interests.  The local populations were not consulted – or even considered – in the shaping of these colonies. 

As a result, as these new 'nations' came to independence, they were comprised of a number of different ancient African tribes or ethnic groups - with long histories of mutual hatreds.   These hatreds were guaranteed absolutely to flare up as soon as the Europeans left and the new countries were then expected to move ahead on their own around some kind of contrived sense of ‘national’ unity. 

Usually such unity came only through the efforts of a powerful head of state (a dictator) who held the country’s various subgroups together on the basis of his total grip on power … and his ability to pay off key supporters from whatever groups (certainly always the military) he felt were necessary to  hold things together. 

The democratic West failed to understand this dynamic or even this need for tightfistedness (not just in Africa but in the post-colonial Third World in general) and either complained loudly about the lack of democracy in the Third World  … or even attempted – in the name of  democracy – to overthrow such authoritarian governments in the hope of reconstituting democracy in these ‘new nations.’ 

The results of such efforts at 'nation-building' were rather predictably disastrous for everyone.

Rebellion and starvation in the oil-rich Biafran province of Nigeria

Starving Ibos in Biafra (Nigeria) - 1967
Archive Photos
Our Times, p. 490

Starvation in Biafra caused by Nigerian tribal wars - July 1968
America and West Europe complained about the treatment of the Biafrans.  But African leaders blocked any attempt to allow Biafra to separate from Nigeria –
fearing that this would set the precedent for unhappy tribal subgroups to begin demanding their own independence from the new ‘national’ authorities.
Encouraging such ‘self-determination of peoples’ would have turned the entire African continent into a war zone of contending tribes
(it would do that well enough on its own even without international encouragement!).
Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin
Stepan, Photos that Changed the World, p. 118

The Ibo tribesmen of Nigeria had traditionally been looked down upon by the more advanced Yoruba and Hausa in the region.  But under British colonial rule, the Ibo had made the effort to advance themselves and had spread throughout the region as low-level civil servants and entrepreneurs.

At independence the Ibo found themselves once again under the contempt of the Yoruba and Hausa.  Thus in 1966 the Ibo made a move to take over the Nigerian state -- only to stir up a counter-coup led by the Hausa.  Attacks all around Nigeria on the widely dispersed Ibo led to 30,000 Ibo deaths -- and a flood of about a million Ibo refugees back to their traditional homeland in southeastern Nigeria.  Lt. Col. Ojukwu took command of the situation in the Ibo region and in May of 1966 declared independence of the Ibo homeland as the new state of Biafra.

But Biafra received no support from the rest of the African states.  All of the new African states feared the outbreak of disruptive tribalism within their own European-concocted borders, and none of them therefore would support the Biafran tribal breakaway.  Also, the Ibo region held most of Nigeria's large wealth in oil -- and the Yoruba and Hausa were thus most unwilling to let Biafra go independent.  As a result, Biafra was isolated diplomatically and economically by the rest of Nigeria and Africa.

The Biafrans tried desperately to secure their independence.  Nonetheless in 1970, after more than a million Ibo died of starvation or illness under the Nigerian blockade, the Ibo rebels surrendered and the area was restored to Nigerian rule.

African Whites, seeing the trend in Africa toward independence under black rule, hold tough trying to hang on to their positions in their African homelands

Nelson Mandela and his long-time friend Walter Sisulu at Robben Island prison - 1964
Getty Images
 Meredith, p. 178h

Prime Minister Ian Smith signing Rhodesia's Declaration of Independence
to avoid British pressures to integrate their White-dominated society - 1965
Corbis
 Meredith, p. 178h
PROBLEMS CONTINUE TO UNFOLD IN LATIN AMERICA

The legendary Che Guevara shot down by Bolivian troops - Oct 1967
Mo Garcia
Time - 75 Years, p. 107

Corpse of Che Guevara - Vallegrande, Bolivia, October 9, 1967
Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin
Stepan, Photos that Changed the World, p. 90
THE  1967 ARAB-ISRAELI 'JUNE WAR' (OR 'SIX-DAYS WAR') 

In the Middle East, things are heating up again ... under the initiative of Egyptian President Nasser
who is playing the 'Israeli card' in order to swing a rising spirit of Arab nationalism under his authority

United Nations Secretary General U Thant meeting with Egyptian President Gamel Abdul Nasser in
late May 1967 to try to back the Egyptians down from a growing confrontation with the Israelis
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 147

But the Israelis do not intend to be the whipping boy for Nasser - and without warning strike Egypt
just as Nasser was bragging about how he intended to liberate Paalestine from the Israeli Jewish occupation.

Egyptian President Gamel Abdul Nasser and Egyptian Field Marshall Abdel Hakim Amer
enjoying a moment of laughter shortly before the outbreak of the June war with Israel.
After the Egyptian defeat, Amer was arrested for plotting to overthrew Nasser – and committed suicide.
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 103

Israel strikes the first blow - 7:45 a.m., June 5, 1967

Nasser's air force was caught completely napping - and was destroyed on the ground before the Egyptians could get their planes in the air.
Now without air cover, the Egyptian army is a helpless duck sitting under the total air mastery of the Israelis.  There is no question as to who will be the victors in this
confrontation.  The only question now is how badly this is going to turn out for the Egyptians and the other Arab peoples caught in this conflict.  The answer is ... "very badly."

Part of the Egyptian air force caught unprepared for an Israeli surprise attack - June 1967
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 108

Israeli armored vehicles advancing toward the Sinai desert - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 293

Israeli armored vehicles advancing through the Sinai desert - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 291

Israeli soldiers advancing on Egyptian lines in the Sinai - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 291

The United Nations Security Council meeting on the Mid-east crisis - June 5, 1967
UPI
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 152

The burned-out remains of Egyptian armored vehicles and tanks at the Mitla Pass - June 1967
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 102

Israeli soldier guarding Egyptian captives taken in the Gaza strip  - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 293

Israeli soliders advancing toward the front; Egyptian prisoners being brought to the rear
UPI
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 103

Supplies being dropped to Israeli troops in the Sinai Desert on the third day of the war - June 1967
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 109

An Israeli torpedo boat patroling near the captured Sharm el Sheik fortress --
ending the blockade of the Israeli port of Aqaba
UPI
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 108

An Israeli soldier observing the burning of an Egyptian oil refinery across the Suez Canal
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 104

Foolishly King Hussein of Jordan decided to make a show of support for Nasser (after Nasser lied and told Hussein
by phone that his army and airforce were advancing quickly against the Israelis) by attacking Israel from the West Bank.
That was a huge mistake,especially when within an hour of the Jordanian attack the Israeli airforce destroyed the Jordanian
air force, still on the ground.  Syria also jumped in against Israel, suffering the same quick destruction of its airforce,
most of it also still on the ground

The Israelis sweep quickly through the West Bank region against the Jordanians - June 1967
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 109

Israeli soldiers planning their moves into East Jerusalem  - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 294-295

Israeli troops involved in a street battle for East Jerusalem - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 295

Israeli troops on the Temple mount in Jerusalem - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 295

The American monitoring ship USS Liberty holed off the Egyptian coast by an Israeli torpedo -
an unexplained Israeli action that caused 100 US casualties
(the Israelis never offered a convincing explanation for this attack on a well-marked American naval vessel)
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 104

Israeli troops celebrating victory - June 1967
Garibaldi, p. 295

Palestinian refugees (some of nearly 200,000) fleeing across a demolished Allenby bridge into Jordan
to escape the Israeli occupation of the West Bank region
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 104

United Nations observers at the Suez canal contemplating the consequences for world shipping
of the blockage once again of the canal by ships scuttled at both ends (also trapping 15 ships within the canal)
UPI
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 148

King Hussein of Jordan at the UN calls for withdrawal of Israeli forces from all captured territory;
Israeli UN Ambassador Abba Eban asserts that there will be no withdrawal without face to face negotiations
Wide World (Hussein) / UPI (Eban)
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 149

And the American nation (though not yet its government) moves solidly into the pro-Israeli camp
thanks to a lot of pro-Israeli media slant

Pro-Israeli protesters gather in front of the White House - June 1967
Behind them is a much smaller group of pro-Arab protesters
UPI

The American media followed the war almost exclusively from the Israeli perspective ...
drawing America broadly into an on-going pro-Israeli position in the Arab-Israeli dispute

The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian West Bank region will now be viewed in Israel as the completion of Israel’s full unification.
The world (including the U.S. government) however will not recognize these new boundaries … and the Palestinians will continue
to struggle against this expanded Israel in an rather futile effort to secure their own national homeland

Captured Russian-built Egyptian tanks being paraded through a "unified" Jerusalem on Israel's 20th Anniversary - May 2, 1968
Wide World
Grauer, NBC News Picture Book of 1968, p. 109

PLO chairman Yasir Arafat - 1968
(he and his organization will be portrayed in the American media and popular culture as a war criminal
for his actions in promoting and defending militarily the Palestinian cause)
Camera Press, Ltd.
Our Times, p. 471

The PLO was created in 1964 by Nasser of Egypt to combine all Palestinian groups into one nationalist institution.   Initally the PLO was headed by Ahmad Shukeiry.   But after the disastrous (for the Arabs) 1967 Arab-Israeli war, the military-based Al Fatah, headed by Arafat, took over and reshaped the organization.  In 1968 the PLO named Arafat as head of the PLO.

Miles H. Hodges - 2012